How to Determine the Mass of a Star

Nearly everything in the universe has mass, from atoms and sub-atomic particles (such as those studied by the Large Hadron Collider) to giant clusters of galaxies.  The only things scientists know about so far that dont have mass are photons and gluons.   Mass is important to know, but objects in the sky are too distant. We cant touch them and we certainly cant weigh them through conventional means. So, how do astronomers determine the mass of things in the cosmos? Its complicated.   Stars and Mass Assume that a  typical star  is pretty massive, generally much more so than a typical planet. Why care about its mass? That information is important to know because  it reveals clues about a stars evolutionary past, present, and future. Astronomers using the Hubble Space Telescope identified nine monster stars with masses more than 100 times the Suns mass. They lie in the star cluster R136 in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud. Mass is an important characteristic when figuring out the life spans of stars. NASA/ESA/STScI Astronomers can use several indirect methods to determine stellar mass. One method, called  gravitational lensing, measures the path of light that is bent by the gravitational pull of a nearby object. Although the amount of bending is small, careful measurements can reveal the mass of the gravitational pull of the object doing the tugging. Typical Star Mass Measurements It took astronomers until the 21st century to apply gravitational lensing to measuring stellar masses. Before that, they had to rely on measurements of stars orbiting a common center of mass, so-called binary stars. The mass of  binary stars (two stars orbiting a common center of gravity) is pretty easy for astronomers to measure. In fact, multiple star systems provide a textbook example of how to figure out their masses. Its a bit technical but worth studying to understand what astronomers have to do. A Hubble Space Telescope image of Sirius A and B, a binary system 8.6 light-years away from Earth. NASA/ESA/STScI First, they measure the orbits of all the stars in the system. They also clock the stars orbital speeds and then determine how long it takes a given star to go through one orbit. Thats called its orbital period.   Calculating Mass Once all that information is known, astronomers next do some calculations to determine the masses of the stars. They can use the equation Vorbit SQRT(GM/R) where SQRT is square root a, G is gravity, M is mass, and R is the radius of the object. Its a matter of algebra to tease out the mass by rearranging the equation to solve for M.   So, without ever touching a star, astronomers use mathematics and known physical laws to figure out its mass. However, they cant do this for every star. Other measurements help them figure out the masses for stars ​not in binary or multiple-star systems. For example, they can use luminosities and temperatures. Stars of different luminosities and temperatures have vastly different masses. That information, when plotted on a graph, shows that stars can be arranged by temperature and luminosity. Really massive stars are among the hottest ones in the universe. Lesser-mass stars, such as the Sun, are cooler than their gigantic siblings. The graph of star temperatures, colors, and brightnesses is called the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, and by definition, it also shows a stars mass, depending on where it lies on the chart. If it lies along a long, sinuous curve called the Main Sequence, then astronomers know that its mass will not be gigantic nor will it be small. The largest mass and smallest-mass stars fall outside the Main Sequence. This version of the Hertzprung-Russell diagram plots the temperatures of stars against their luminosities. The position of a star in the diagram provides information about what stage it is in, as well as its mass and brightness. European Southern Observatory Stellar Evolution Astronomers have a good handle on how stars are born, live, and die. This sequence of life and death is called stellar evolution. The biggest predictor of how a star will evolve is the mass its born with, its initial mass. Low-mass stars are generally cooler and dimmer than their higher-mass counterparts. So, simply by looking at a stars color, temperature, and where it lives in the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, astronomers can get a good idea of a stars mass. Comparisons of similar stars of known mass (such as the binaries mentioned above) give astronomers a good idea of how massive a given star is, even if it isnt a binary. Of course, stars dont keep the same mass all their lives. They lose it as they age. They gradually consume their nuclear fuel, and eventually, experience huge episodes of mass loss at the ends of their lives. If theyre stars like the Sun, they blow it off gently and form planetary nebulae (usually). If theyre much more massive than the Sun, they die in supernova events, where the cores collapse and then expand outward in a catastrophic explosion. That blasts much of their material to space. Composite image of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant that heralded the death of a very massive star. NASA/ESA/ASU/J. Hester A. Loll By observing the types of stars that die like the Sun or die in supernovae, astronomers can deduce what other stars will do. They know their masses, they know how other stars with similar masses evolve and die, and so they can make some pretty good predictions, based on observations of color, temperature, and other aspects that help them understand their masses. Theres much more to observing the stars than gathering data. The information astronomers get is folded into very accurate models that help them predict just exactly what stars in the Milky Way and throughout the universe will do as they are born, age, and die, all based on their masses. In the end, that information also helps people understand more about stars, particularly our Sun. Fast Facts The mass of a star is an important predictor for many other characteristics, including how long it will live.Astronomers use indirect methods to determine the masses of stars since they cant directly touch them.Typically speaking, more massive stars live shorter lifetimes than the less massive ones. This is because they consume their nuclear fuel much faster.Stars like our Sun are intermediate-mass and will end in a much different way than massive stars that will blow themselves up after a few tens of millions of years.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - 1630 Words

Millions of people each year flee their country in order to escape persecution and conflict, seeking asylum as a refugee (Amnesty International Australia 2011). Many refugees present with and develop mental illness due to having experienced or witnessing events such as rape, torture, war, imprisonment, murder, physical injury and genocide, before fleeing their homes (Nicholl Thompson 2004). Refugees are now accessing mental health services for the treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) defined by DSM-IV-TR is â€Å"characterised by the re-experiencing of an extremely traumatic event accompanied by symptoms of increased arousal and by avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma† (Diagnostic and†¦show more content†¦The hypothalamic piturity-adrenocortical (HPA) system that allows the coping with stress is also dysregulated in PTSD. Patients display abnormalities such as lower urinary cortisol levels, elevated lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor levels and dexamethasone super suppression. The acoustic startle-response is a series of muscular and autonomic responses that alert the body to a threat. An exaggerated startle response is one of the diagnostic symptoms of PTSD. PTSD patients display a shorter period and increased change of the acoustic-startle-eye-blink reflex, significant loss of the normal modulation of the startle reflex, and resistance to habituation of the startle response (Friedman 2000). Fear conditioning is a mechanism that neutral cues associated with a traumatic event acquire the capacity to cause a conditioned emotional response in the absence of the aversive stimulus. Appraisal discussed by Friedman (2000) is a process that evaluate whether a situation is possibly dangerous. Coping, adaptation, and survival depend on the capacity of individuals to assess different situations accurately as pleasant, gentle, challenging or threatening. PTSD patients have lost this capacity and are much more likely to assess normal situations as threatening. This reaction toShow MoreRelatedPost Traumatic Stress Disorder980 Words   |  4 PagesToday we are here to figure out why is it that past events are the triggers that cause Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder is an anxiety disorder that some people get after seeing or undergoing a dangerous event. There are various symptoms that begin to show or actions that can give a clear answer whether one may be diagnosed with this disorder. One of the many problems is that no age range is safe from suffering PTSD. One must ask themselves what set of events happenedRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder851 Words   |  3 PagesPost Traumatic Stress Disorder Introduction â€Å"There are currently over 400,000 Veterans in treatment for PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder) and it is estimated that with the Iraq and Afghanistan wars there is an additional 33% increase in our returning soldiers.† Post Traumatic Stress Disorder has become a severe issue for veterans returning from overseas. One of the most effective, yet unused resources given to veterans to help them cope with their disorder is specially trained dogs. 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This disorder is mainly caused by going through or experiencing a traumatic event, and its risk of may be increased by issues

Diametrically Opposite Perfect Competition â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Diametrically Opposite Perfect Competition? Answer: Introducation Monopoly has 1 firm, while perfect competition has many firms Monopoly faces a down sloping demand curve, while a firm in perfect competition has a horizontal demand curve. The monopolist is a price maker, while a firm in a price taker in perfect competition. Monopoly has entry barriers while perfect competition has free entry and exit of firms. A monopolistic competition market structure is closer to perfect competition, than to monopoly. In monopolistic competition there are less firms as compared to a perfect competition. Each firm in monopolistic competition faces an elastic demand curve that slopes down- each firm has limited control over price. All goods are homogeneous in perfect competition, while they are differentiated in monopolistic competition. This differentiation leads to the birth of a product group, which consists of goods that are close substitutes of each other. Perfect competition and monopolistic competition are similar as they do not allow abnormal profits in the long run, and allow free entry and exit of firms. . Such firms face a downward sloping curve, which means that price and quantity are inversely related. If they increase quantity then they face a lower price, which reduces profits. Ina way they face a tradeoff between lowering average cost( by increasing quantity) and lower price. The balance between price and average cost is reached by equating marginal revenue with marginal cost. FALSE, because a firm in monopolistic competitive structure cannot make positive economic profits in the long run. This is because there is free entry and exit. If profits exist new firms will enter and ensure prices are lowered till all positive profits are wiped out. Equilibrium is reached when only normal profits are made. Option A is best. This is because AVC P ATC which implies losses in the short run. The firm continues as variable costs are covered by revenues. In the long run such losses will lead to closure as the monopolist cant continue with losses in long run. Option b is wrong as the firm will not shut down since variable costs are covered. Also once it shuts down it cant start again in long run unless some other factors change. Option c is wrong because shut down and exit are the same thing. The firm will do none. Option d is incorrect as a monopolist cant continue with losses in long run. MR at each point= change in TR/ change in Q P Q TR = P*Q MR 50 0 0 - 40 5 200 200/5=40 30 10 300 100/5=20 20 20 400 100/10=10 15 30 450 =50/10=5 10 50 500 =50/20=2.5 5 102 510 =10/52 = 0.192 2.5 200 500 10/92= 0.108 MC= 5. We use the MC=MR rule. The point where MR=MC is the equilibrium point that maximizes profits. As per the table MR=5 at Q = 30 and P=15 Yes GOOGLE is a monopoly in a narrow sense. This sense considers firms that provide all the services that Google does. No firm has the range of services that Google does, which makes it a monopoly. However there are some substitutes of various services offered by Google, which break the monopoly of Google. Hence the real answer lies in how we define the product group to which Google belongs. References IMperfect Competition . (n.d.). Retrieved july 31, 2017, from Colarado.edu: https://www.colorado.edu/Economics/courses/Markusen/fall05-4413-001/unotes7.pdf perfect competition. (n.d.). Retrieved August 2, 2017, from Staffwww.fullcoll.edu: https://staffwww.fullcoll.edu/fchan/Micro/4perfect_competition.htm